Current Advances in Cancer Immunotherapy: Mechanisms, Therapeutic Strategies, Challenges, and Future Perspectives

Authors

• Mohamed E. Abd El-Hack, Department of Industrial Pharmacy, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Drug Manufacturing, Misr University for Science and Technology (MUST), P.O. Box 77, Giza, EgyptFollow
• Mahmoud Moustafa, Department of Biology, College of Science, King Khalid University, Abha, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
• Mahmoud Kamal, Animal Production Research Institute, Agricultural Research Center, Dokki, Giza 12618, Egypt AND Laboratory of Gastrointestinal Microbiology, National Center for International Research on Animal Gut Nutrition, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China
• Vincenzo Tufarelli, Department of Precision and Regenerative Medicine and Jonian Area (DiMePRe-J), Section of Veterinary Science and Animal Production, University of Bari `Aldo Moro', s.p. Casamassima km 3, 70010 Valenzano, Italy
• Muhammad Arif, Department of Animal Sciences, College of Agriculture, University of Sargodha, Sargodha, Pakistan
• Laith Aldabbagh, Cardiology Department, Royal Bournemouth Hospital, University Hospitals Dorset

Abstract

Cancer immunotherapy has emerged as a transformative therapeutic strategy that harnesses the host immune system to recognize and eliminate malignant cells. This review provides a comprehensive overview of current immunotherapeutic approaches, including immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs), monoclonal antibodies (mAbs), cancer vaccines, dendritic cell (DC)-based vaccines, chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-T cell therapy, and oncolytic virus therapy. The mechanisms of action, therapeutic applications, and clinical benefits of each modality are discussed. Monoclonal antibodies selectively target tumor-associated antigens, whereas ICIs restore antitumor immunity by blocking inhibitory immune checkpoints. Cancer vaccines and DC-based vaccines enhance antigen-specific immune responses, while CAR-T cell therapy employs genetically engineered T cells to achieve highly specific tumor targeting. Oncolytic viruses selectively infect and destroy tumor cells while stimulating systemic antitumor immune responses. The review also addresses major challenges associated with immunotherapy, including immune-related adverse events, variable patient responses, and the development of therapeutic resistance. Particular emphasis is placed on the tumor microenvironment (TME), whose complex cellular and molecular interactions critically influence tumor progression, immune evasion, and treatment efficacy. Furthermore, the potential of combination immunotherapeutic strategies to improve clinical outcomes and achieve durable responses is highlighted. Finally, emerging applications of immunotherapy beyond oncology are briefly discussed. Collectively, this review summarizes recent advances in cancer immunotherapy and provides insights into current challenges and future directions for the development of more effective and personalized therapeutic strategies. Unlike previous studies focusing solely on specific therapeutic modalities, this review uniquely integrates fundamental cellular mechanisms, clinical milestones, TME dynamics, and current combination strategies, while also highlighting emerging non-oncology applications of Immunotherapeutics.

Recommended Citation

El-Hack, Mohamed E. Abd; Moustafa, Mahmoud; Kamal, Mahmoud; Tufarelli, Vincenzo; Arif, Muhammad; and Aldabbagh, Laith (2026) "Current Advances in Cancer Immunotherapy: Mechanisms, Therapeutic Strategies, Challenges, and Future Perspectives," Al-Mustaqbal Journal of Pharmaceutical and Medical Sciences: Vol. 4 : Iss. 2 , Article 2.
Available at: https://doi.org/10.62846/3006-5909.1045